Jed;
You are about to swim in some very muddy waters. Of the names you listed, some refer to a species, or a group of species, or to the figure of the wood. The only way to know for sure is to know the botanical name of the species you want. For example...Acer negundo is known as Manitoba maple, Ash leaved maple, or box elder depending on the region you are in and who you are talking to. Norway, sugar, red and black maple refer to species of maples. Sugar maple is sometimes called hard maple or hard rock maple. Silver maple is often called soft maple.
Birdseye, spalted and feather crotch refer to grain patterns.
Of the woods labeled as cedar, none are a true cedar. Depending on which specific one you are talking about, they could be from the cypress, false cypress, arborvitae or juniper family. For example the wood used for cedar chests is actually a juniper. It could be Rocky Mountain Juniper which is Juniperus scopulorum, but is more likely Eastern Red Cedar which is Juniperus virginiana.
I know this will not answer all your questions, but may keep you from spending too much time banging your head against the wall, or in this case the tree. If I can help any more, please feel free to contact me.
You may want to scrounge some wood from old pallets. The real soft ones are usually pine, and the harder ones are often maple or oak. All you can do is try some and see if you like them. It would also help to be on good terms with the local tree trimmers. Honey locust is a beautiful hard wood with yellow to tan color. Basswood is called linden in the nursery trade. Black locust can be found in my area, and although is considered a trash tree by many, it has a beautiful tan wood with good rot resistance. Russian olive has a pretty dark brown to black wood that is fairly easy to work. Many fo these are common across the country along with oak, birch, cherry,ash elm and many others. Often pieces of these can be had for the asking from the tree trimmers.
Dale